Teaching Students with Asperger's & Oppositional Defiant Disorder

Teaching a student who has both Asperger's (AS) and Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) requires innovation and patience along with perseverance during mastery of new information. Whether you are a parent or a special resources educator who works on a daily basis with developmentally disabled kids, employing the following techniques in the classroom will have great benefit:

1. Use repetition to reinforce new concepts and help mastery. Repetition is a valuable tool in helping AS/ODD kids learn.  Many kids willingly watch an enjoyable video over and over. Each time, new information is processed, and memories are made. AS/ODD kids learn best when concepts are reiterated (e.g., repetition can be accomplished through using the same set of math flashcards over and over).  Sometimes, however, the information can be repeated while the format of presentation changes (e.g., the same math facts can be reinforced by using counting sticks instead of flashcards).  Repetition occurs when the process is replicated and when the same information is illustrated in a new process. 

2. Remain consistent in use of teaching techniques, discipline and rewards. AS/ODD kids often have tantrums when they don’t get what they want or can’t express what they are feeling or needing.  Helping these youngsters to communicate their needs, and then empowering them to learn to self-regulate, should be a part of every effective teaching technique. When verbal communication of emotions is unsuccessful, world pictures can often help.  When AS/ODD youngsters show early signs of having a meltdown, show them pictures of normal daily activities (e.g., eating, going to the restroom, playing with a peer, reading a book, etc.).  Ask them to point to the picture that shows what they need.  If they don’t respond to any of the pictures, chances are they are simply upset because of not getting their way.  A “special needs” youngster needs an adult to model appropriate limits. Consistent discipline for misbehavior is just as important as rewards for good behavior.

3. Many AS/ODD kids struggle with expressing themselves.  They often excel at creative activities like drawing, painting, and sculpting with clay. These mediums can be used as effective teaching techniques to help these youngsters create a “pictorial concept.” These images allow them to use their strengths to help them communicate and connect to the world around them in a meaningful way. AS/ODD kids will often have difficulty expressing emotions, but their drawings may reveal latent emotions.  Drawings can also be used to help these kids tell stories about their daily lives.  When the youngster repeatedly draws the same type of picture or uses the same color over and over, he or she may be attempting to reveal something about his or her world.  Many psychologists and therapists are trained to communicate with kids who can’t express their emotions, but have learned to do so through the use of art.

4. Develop and maintain a structured learning environment. Even high-functioning AS/ODD kids struggle with self-control and boundaries when overly-stimulated. The most effective teaching techniques are those that provide a highly-structured environment that remains constant so that only the concept or behavior being introduced is new.  For example, an organized work station should remain clutter-free with concrete guidelines for where to sit, store supplies, hang up coats, or take a time-out when feeling anxious or angry. Clear expectations provide AS/ODD children the freedom to obey limits without needing to be prompted.

5. Combine visual, tactile and auditory cues to facilitate learning. Auditory learning is the least effective sensory tool for an AS/ODD youngster.  However, it can be combined with visual and tactile clues that will make the meaning clearer and help a “concrete thinker” learn to associate emotional expression with word pictures. For example, in working with emotions, educators can begin to teach the youngster what “anxious” means by drawing an anxious face on a piece of paper. However, the youngster may not have a sense of anxiety occurring in real life outside of the drawing.  Next, teachers can build on the meaning of this emotion by arranging their own features to look anxious.  If teachers invite the AS/ODD youngster to trace around their facial expression with her fingers, she may begin to understand that teachers could feel anxious.  The next step is to help the youngster arrange her own features to reflect personal feelings of anxiety. Roll play is often the last step in helping a youngster experience what it is like to be anxious. Add an empathetic gesture (e.g., a light touch on her shoulder), and you are modeling empathy for someone who is feeling anxious. The combination of visual and tactile clues all help the youngster understand that the drawing, the teacher’s face, her face, and elements of the roll play all represent what it means to be anxious and to care about the feelings of others.

Teaching techniques for an AS/ODD youngster should not focus on the limitations that the youngster experiences.  Even AS/ODD youngsters are often exceptional in other ways. The most successful strategies for learning first discover the youngster’s best sensory portal, and then incorporate her giftedness as a vehicle for self-expression against the backdrop of a structured and consistent learning environment.

==> Parenting and Teaching Children with Oppositional Defiant Disorder

Minimizing Disruptive Behaviors: Tip for Teachers with Oppositional Defiant Students

Minimizing Disruptive Behaviors: Tip for Teachers with Oppositional Defiant Students

1. STAY CALM. The first thing to do when encountering disruptive behavior in the classroom is to stay calm. Count to ten, breathe deeply, and visualize a peaceful scene …anything to keep from losing a calm demeanor. No matter how much an offensive child tries to bait teachers, they lose credibility if they lower themselves to the student’s level. If the teacher keeps her composure, she will likely win the sympathy and support of the other children. They may even start using social pressure to discipline the disruptive student themselves. Keeping one’s composure, however, does not mean just accepting and tolerating the abuse. There are some specific, appropriate measures teachers can take in response to disruptive behaviors, which brings us to tip #2.

2. ARRIVING LATE AND/OR LEAVING EARLY. State the school’s policies clearly on the first day of class. Insist that children inform you, preferably in advance, of any special circumstances that will require them to be late to class – or absent altogether. Subtract points for coming to class late and leaving early. Draw attention to disruptive students by pausing as they walk in and out. Alternatively, set aside an area near the door for latecomers and early leavers. Finally, to discourage packing up early, routinely conduct important class activities for the beginning and the end of class.

3. ASKING FOR EXTENSIONS AND MISSING ASSIGNMENT DEADLINES. Specify penalties for late work, with or without an "approved" extension (e.g., docking a portion of the grade). Some teachers feel comfortable strictly enforcing this policy. But if you prefer to be flexible, you probably realize that children occasionally have good reasons for not meeting deadlines. But they also occasionally lie. So, assess each extension request and excuse on a case-by-case, child-by-child basis, perhaps allowing a single, documented incident – but drawing the line at the second.

4. PACKING UP EARLY. Routinely reserve some important points or classroom activities (e.g., quizzes, writing exercises, clarification of the upcoming readings, study guide distribution, etc.) until the end of class. Alternatively, have children turn in assignments at the end of class. Paper-rustling and other disruptive noise-making during class can be stopped the same way as is talking in class.

5. SHOWING DISRESPECT. Make your expectations for appropriate classroom manners clear from the start and reinforce them continually by your being a good role model. Enlist the aid of other children to monitor and report disruptive incidents. Talk to disruptive students privately and explain that their behavior is affecting their peers’ ability to learn. Sometimes children show disrespect to get the attention they believe they can’t get through any other means, to vent their anger towards authority in general, or to express some other deep-seated emotional problem. Leave such cases to the school counselor and refer such children as needed.

6. TAKING IN CLASS. Occasional comments or questions from one child to another are to be expected. However, chronic talkers bother other children and interfere with your train of thought. To stop them, try a long, dramatic pause. Then, if necessary, accompany your pause with an equally dramatic stare at the disruptive students. Say something like, "I really think you should pay attention to this; it will be on the test" or "You are disturbing your peers." If the problem continues, get assertive with the disruptive students outside the class. Direct intervention and public embarrassment are strictly last resorts.

7. WASTING TIME. If children habitually try to monopolize class time, encourage them to speak with you after class to clarify their questions. You can broaden the discussion and call attention away from the disruptive child by asking the rest of the class for the answers. Alternatively, you can put out a question box. Read the questions after class and briefly address some of them.

8. Become well-educated in all aspects of Oppositional Defiant Disorder.

9. Be sure to take care of your own physical and mental health.

10. Your best strategy against all forms of disruptive behavior is prevention. Be aware of potential problems, and plan carefully to keep them from developing.

==> Parenting/Teaching Children with Oppositional Defiant Disorder

Managing the Disruptive Student

Managing children who are disruptive, those who lack motivation and appear as though they would rather be any place than in the classroom, is easier when teachers take the right stance. Anything is possible when teachers have faith in the children they teach. Learning starts with a dedicated teacher interested in meeting the challenge of how to present content in a way that successfully navigates the barriers defiant children erect.

Believing in oppositional children is the right stance, but it doesn’t prevent them from coming to class unprepared, handing in assignments late, asking to use the bathroom over and over, and talking in class. Here are some strategies that teachers can use with disruptive children in class. Each of the four techniques described below has the teachers acknowledging the problem, and then working with the child to develop a plan to correct the problem (an approach built on collaboration):

1. Avoid arguing— Arguing with defiant children only makes them more resistant. It is highly unlikely that the teacher is going to “persuade” an oppositional child, whether that child needs to get work done on time or stop talking to his neighbor. A more indirect approach may be better. For example, “When you don’t get your work done on time, you end up having twice as much to do later – the first assignment that you didn’t complete plus the new assignment.”

2. Develop discrepancy— Children are motivated to change when they perceive a discrepancy between where they are and where they want to be. The teachers can make children aware of this discrepancy. For example, “You like to go to recess, but you are regularly losing that privilege by not getting your work done on time.” …or…“You said you want to be a computer programmer someday, but you fall asleep whenever you lose interest. What’s going to happen when the staff meetings you’re required to attend get boring?”

3. Express empathy— The teacher communicates with disruptive children from a position of power, but the teacher still respects the children and practices active listening. Despite the power associated with being the teacher, he/she recognizes that the behavior that needs to be changed can be changed only by the child.

4. Roll with resistance— Don’t meet it head on. Invite the defiant child to think about the problem differently. Rather than imposing a solution, see if the child can generate one. For example, “You missed the assignment. What’s a fair consequence for that?”

Teachers aren’t law enforcement officers. They aren’t expected to be entertainers or hand-holders. They do have the responsibility to create a classroom setting that engages disruptive children and fosters relationships based on mutual respect, though. True learning occurs when both work together, treading softly on differences and celebrating strengths.

==> Parenting/Teaching Children with Oppositional Defiant Disorder

Managing ODD Students in the Classroom: Issues and Solutions

Undermining the teacher’s authority: This is tricky as it speaks to "attitude." An ODD child might belittle the teacher or engage in a battle of the wills. This youngster would need to be privately told that his attitude was confrontational and asked how this might be resolved mutually. Be careful not to read most questions about content, interpretation, or assignments as a challenge of authority. Acting as it they are not, even when you suspect they are, can convey a sense of confidence and control. Sometimes merely assuring the youngster, while smiling, that you have indeed reflected on this issue at length and that he too will understand soon why the information or the assignment is valuable diffuses the situation. You may even want to encourage him to ask the question again at a later date if necessary.

Sleeping in class: Sleeping in class is usually considered rude. Most teachers believe it should not be tolerated and is best curbed up front by waking a sleeping youngster and asking her to step outside with you. Once there, faculty often tell youngsters that it’s best for the rest of the class if they return when they are awake enough to be an active participant. This occurs from time to time, and you obviously are the one to choose lenience or punitive action. If it’s one of your more regularly involved youngsters, perhaps give them an option of an extra credit research assignment they can bring to your next class period covering the subject matter they missed while they were sleeping. An alternative approach is to assume that the youngster does not feel well or has some other condition that results in sleepiness when still for long periods of time. You might simply choose to wake the youngster and ask them if they are feeling alright. To pull this off, you need to approach it with true concern for the youngster's health and well being. Most of the time, youngster's are so embarrassed that they don't let it happen again. In particularly long classes, break up the session with activities or paired conversations about a topic to ensure that youngsters stay engaged. ODD youngsters don't learn much from listening, so remember that the more they "experience" the learning process – the more you are really teaching.

Repeated Tardiness: There should be clear parameters set around this issue up front – either in your class rules or in the class decided norms. It might be best to discuss this with ODD youngsters individually. Some are habitually late because they are dependent on others for transportation to school.

"Spacing Out" or Sitting with Back to Teacher: If this is a repeated problem, youngsters need to know that their non-verbal behavior is perceived as disinterest. You might ask them after class if they need a more comfortable seat. Some youngsters are extremely shy and it might take quite a while before they open up enough to make sustained eye contact or face the teacher completely.

Disrespectful Behavior: The reality is that sometimes ODD youngsters just plain won’t like you. You will find yourself in a conversation with yourself about why they don’t like you and treat you with disrespect. Animosity will perpetuate itself, so remember your role and look for a way to positively invite the youngster to engage more deeply in the class. Perhaps offer them a special task based on a self-disclosed talent (e.g., an ODD child whose hobby is Origami might lead a lesson on the art of following instructions).

Gum, Food, Pagers, and Cell Phone Disruption: If decided upon by class, consequences for breaking this policy might range from the loss of participation points to the offender having to present on a topic of interest to the class. Some teachers allow cell phones to be on the vibrate setting as long as they are attended to at the break rather than used when it interrupts the class. Teachers need to abide by this rule as well and allow for at least one mistake per youngster as accidents do happen from oversight. The idea here is to prevent habitual disruption from gum popping and phones ringing.

Leaving class too frequently: Camps are divided as to whether or not youngsters should ask for permission to leave for bathroom breaks or wait for a break in the class. Some teachers don’t require their youngsters to limit their bathroom breaks or ask permission, however, this is contentious for some teachers when breaks are taken too frequently. You might privately ask the youngster if everything is OK so that they know that you are concerned by their behavior. Don’t assume disrespect – it might be a bladder infection or some other physical problem.

Monopolizing Discussions: This is common but manageable. Many ODD youngsters are excited and talkative, so it might be good to give them some time to settle in. However, if it’s evident right away that this is a trend, it’s best to ask them to stay after class. You might approach them initially by saying that you are pleased with the amount of enthusiasm they have for discussion but were hoping that they have suggestions for getting the other class members equally involved. The youngster will most likely get your drift with minimal humiliation.

Plagiarism or Lying: Depending upon the class and the youngster’s prior knowledge of what plagiarism entails, some teachers issue an automatic F for the first instance, then expulsion from the class on a second instance. Most schools have specific policies. Be sure to know you school’s policy before taking action. Plagiarism should be outlined in your class rules.

Refusal to Participate or Speak: We can’t force youngsters to speak in class nor participate in group projects. This can be addressed and become a win-win situation by either giving the youngster alternative options to verbal participation (unless it’s a speech class) or simply carefully coaxing some response out of them and praising whatever minimal effort you receive from them. Remember, some youngsters are terrified to be in a class setting –especially if there are round tables rather than desks – allowing for little anonymity.

==> Parenting/Teaching Children with Oppositional Defiant Disorder

Tips for Dealing with the Conduct Disorder Student

Needless to say, children with Conduct Disorder (CD) are frequently removed from class, suspended and/or expelled. They are often involved in physical altercations and may bring weapons to school. Children with CD have difficulty with interpersonal relationships and may be abusive to boyfriends/girlfriends. Because they are defiant, children with CD are often absent from school and have difficulty completing assignments.

Children with CD like to engage in power struggles. They often react badly to direct demands or statements such as: “You need to...” or “You must...” They may consistently challenge class rules, refuse to do assignments, and argue or fight with the other kids. This behavior can cause significant impairment in both social and academic functioning. They also work best in environments with high staff-child ratios, one-on-one situations, or self-contained programs, when there is plenty of structure and clearly defined guidelines. Their frequent absences and refusal to do assignments often lead to academic failure.

If you have a youngster in class who has been diagnosed with CD, here are some ideas for assisting them:

1. Avoid escalating prompts such as shouting, touching, nagging, or cornering the youngster.

2. Avoid giving ultimatums - use options instead.

3. CD children often work best in small group or one-on-one settings. They need a great deal of structure and clear expectations if they are to be successful. Therefore, it may be helpful to get permission to speak with any mental health practitioners who are involved with the youngster. These professionals can help you gain a better understanding of the disorder, and work with you to develop effective interventions for the youngster in you classroom. In turn, you provide to the mental health professional beneficial insight into how the youngster acts in and academic setting, which can help the professional treat the youngster in a more holistic manner.

4. Consider the use of technology. Children with CD tend to work well on computers with active programs.

5. Develop a plan, ahead of time as to what will be done if the youngster becomes angry or violent. Make sure the parent, staff and the youngster are informed about who will be contacted and the order of the steps which will be taken to ensure the safety of the youngster and others.

6. Do not carry a "grudge' against the CD youngster – and be willing to start over with them. CD children have true mental health issues and are often as overwhelmed and puzzled by their behaviors as those around them.

7. Do not touch children with CD’ especially when they are angry. They may take it as a personal threat.

8. Embarrassment is a concern for all teens, but is multiplied in teens with CD. Modifications and adaptations should been accomplished with subtle non-intrusive methods to allow the youngster to maintain a sense of dignity and responsibility. Blatant, harsh criticisms of these kids will perpetuate their fears of failure and feed into their cycles of anger and rage.

9. Establish clear classroom rules. Be clear about what is non-negotiable.

10. Give the youngster a choice in most matters. Stay away from direct demands or statements such as: “You need to...” or “You must...”

11. If the youngster is old enough to work, consider a work-experience program. CD children often do well in school-to-work programs because they find earning money an incentive.

12. Keep calm and logical during confrontations, especially if the youngster's behavior escalates. These children like power struggles and arguments.

13. Maintain respect as well as emotional detachment.

14. Make sure curriculum is at an appropriate level. When work is too hard, CD children become frustrated. When it is too easy, they become bored.

15. Remember that praise is important, but it needs to be sincere.

16. Maximize the performance of low-performing children through the use of individualized instruction, the breaking down of academic tasks, debriefing, coaching, and providing positive incentives.

17. Select materials that are relevant to the CD kid’s life. Although his skills may be at a lower level, he usually does not respond well to material he perceives as beneath him (age-wise). Look for "high-interest, low-ability" materials.

18. Structure activities so the youngster with CD is not always left out or the last one picked.

19. Children with CD often do well in programs that allow them to work outside of the school setting. Try to monitor your impressions, keep them as neutral as possible, communicate a positive regard for the children, and give them the benefit of the doubt whenever possible.

20. Systematically teach social skills including anger-management, conflict-resolution strategies, and how to be assertive in an appropriate manner.

==> Parenting and Teaching Children with Oppositional Defiant Disorder

Learning Self-Discipline

Just as children function at different levels in algebra (for example), they also function at different levels of discipline. It is possible to set up a consistent system for classroom discipline that will be appropriate for children functioning at all levels - and at the same time - encourage them to work their way up to higher levels.

Although the progression from level to level is the same, the rate varies from student to student. This is why teachers need to be prepared to address discipline in their classrooms at different levels. Their children are functioning at different levels on the road to self-discipline.

Here are the levels and the associated behavior that occurs at the particular level:

Level 1—

Children functioning at level 1 are typically unruly (i.e., they often refuse to follow directions). They are defiant and require a tremendous amount of attention. They have few rules of their own, but out of fear of reprisal, may follow the rules of adults. Most youngsters progress beyond this level by age 5, but a few older children still function at this level.

This is the power level. What makes it work is the imbalance of power between the youngster and the teacher. When the child is young, the imbalance of power between him and his mother or father is significant. If the youngster is never taught a higher level, the imbalance of power diminishes as he grows up. The parent then states that she can no longer control her youngster. He will not mind. He challenges authority constantly.

Fortunately, very few of the children in the classrooms function at this level. Those who do, follow rules as long as the imbalance of power tilts against them. Assertive educators with a constant eye on these children can keep them in line. Turn your back on them for one minute, and they are out of control.

If these children want something, they usually just take it. They show very little concern for the feelings of others. They seek out extensions of power. Pencils, scissors, and rulers become weapons in their hands.

Level 2—

Children functioning at level 2 are a little easier to handle. They also represent only a small percent of the youngsters. They can be classified as having an individualistic morality. They can be very self-centered.

This is the reward and consequence level. These children behave either because they (a) will receive some sort of reward, or (b) don’t like what happens when they don’t behave. Most kids are moving beyond this level by the time they are 9-years-old. Older children who still function at this level do best in classrooms with assertive educators.

There is very little sense of self-discipline at this level. Like the power level kids, these youngsters need constant supervision. They may behave quite well in the classroom, and then be out of control in the hallway.

Level 3—

Children functioning at level 3 make up most of the youngsters in middle and junior high schools. These students have started to develop a sense of discipline. They behave because they are asked to.

This is the mutual interpersonal level. They care what others think about them, and they want you to like them.

These kids need gentle reminders. When the teacher asks them to settle down – they do. Assertive discipline works with these children because they understand it, but they rarely need such a heavy handed approach to classroom discipline.

Quite often you find children in the classroom that are in transition from level 2 to level 3. You may know of a child that gets into lots of trouble in other classrooms – but not in yours. This youngster is just learning to trust others and build the interpersonal relationships that are more common with his peers. Teachers need to let this particular student know that his good behavior is important to you not only in your class, but in others as well. Nurture this youngster, and you will see quick progress. Be unnecessarily assertive, and he will slip back to level 2.

Level 4—

Children functioning at level 4 rarely get into trouble. They have a sense of right and wrong. Although many middle school and junior high school children will occasionally function at this level, only a few consistently do. These are the youngsters teachers enjoy working with. The teacher can leave these students alone with a project and come back 30 minutes later and find them still on task. They behave because, in their minds, it is the right thing to do.

Children who function at level 4 do not appreciate assertive discipline. They are bothered by the fact that other children force educators to use so much class time dealing with discipline problems.

Although most children don’t usually operate at this level, they are near enough to it that they understand it. Cooperative learning activities encourage children to function at this level. Teachers who set-up several groups within the class give children a chance to practice working at this level (while the teacher waits close by, ready to step in if needed).

When you identify the level at which a child is functioning, you can then help that youngster work to the next level. It is a mistake to try and skip levels. Insisting that a level 1 child “get his act together” (similar to a level 4 child) is not a reasonable expectation. Instead, set your goal on level 2. You may be pleasantly surprised when you start to notice improvement.

Any youngster is capable of regressing every now and then. When you really get to know your children and are used to them functioning at a particular level, it is important to look for a reason when one of your children regresses. Problems with family members, friends, alcohol, or drugs may be behind a shift in behavior. It simply might be tiredness or the onset of illness. Whatever the cause, it is worth taking the time to talk with the child and see what’s going on.

Learning self-discipline is just like learning anything else. Your children aren’t always going to get it right the first time. So, teachers need to be patient with the process. Help them some more, and when you think they are ready, give it another try.

==> Parenting and Teaching Children and Teens with Oppositional Defiant Disorder

Dealing with the Violent Student: 45 Tips for Teachers

Students who exhibit violent behavior present the most difficult challenge to educators and moms and dads. Such students may be defiant, start fights, push, kick, hit or grab, throw things, verbally threaten classmates or staff, or destroy property. Some students respond to verbal prompts to interrupt and stop this type of behavior. Others act-out with little obvious provocation and, once they “lose it,” cannot be reached until they have exhausted their rage.

Typically, these students do not handle transitions or unexpected change well and have low tolerance for frustration. This is different from violent behavior that is “episodic” (i.e., out of the norm for the child and perhaps the result of an isolated event at school or home) or “goal oriented” (i.e., employed to achieve a specific desire or targeted at a specific person).

The underlying cause(s) of violent behavior are complex and may be accompanied by other negative behaviors or problems. The most effective way to help such students is to give them the mechanisms to recognize and prevent outbursts before they happen. While the intensity and specificity of interventions may differ, certain “teacher’s strategies” can help build and reinforce positive behavior in all children.

Educators are instrumental to creating a school environment in which students learn positive behavior skills. Much of the time educators spend is focused on disciplining or “cleaning up” after a rage-attack, often with little long-term benefit. Certainly discipline plays a role in violence prevention, but it should be employed as a teaching mechanism, not just a means of containing the behavior. Comprehensive prevention strategies and an intervention process that emphasizes problem solving, not punishment, and facilitates collaboration between staff, moms and dads, and children should be implemented.

Prevention and Problem Solving Strategies—

1. “Normalizing” social learning enables students to understand that violent classmates need extra help from the teacher to learn to cope with frustration.

2. Address the underlying issue(s) and help the child reframe his objective (e.g., learning to master the task instead of avoiding it).

3. Ask the moms and dads to identify triggers and precursor behaviors that they have observed and to recommend coping strategies that work at home.

==> Parenting and Teaching Children and Teens with Oppositional Defiant Disorder

4. Ask the school psychologist to develop uniform criteria for assessing behavior. This helps minimize inconsistencies in referrals due to different behavior tolerances among school staff.

5. Avoid beginning the conversation with moms and dads by offering a litany of negatives. Instead emphasize the child’s strengths and how they can be built into the problem solving process.

6. Build trust with children by being accessible and encouraging.

7. Communicate to children, staff, and moms and dads expectations for behavior and how specific social skills will help children achieve that behavior.

8. Congratulate students when you see them make a good choice.

9. Convey that your involvement in a problem does not signal a failure on the child’s part, but rather your commitment to help him find a solution. This problem solving approach helps establish a sense of trust with the child and reduces parent defensiveness.

10. Designate an office or special place as a “time out room” for students who need to regain safe control. Make sure students know where it is and what adult(s) will be there to help them. This is often the counselor’s office or your office.

11. Determine the circumstances that trigger outbursts. Identifying a pattern of when and how the child acts out helps define the factors that trigger the behavior and, subsequently, suggests strategies that will most effectively correct it.

12. Develop a problem solving, team approach with other teachers and administrators.

13. Develop a signal between the teacher and child that says, “I am having trouble,” and allow the child extra time to complete work or transition to another activity, or provide alternative means to do an assignment.

14. Do not try to establish your relationship with moms and dads over the phone. Schedule a meeting. Good face-to-face communications from the start will minimize confrontation and help parents view you and staff as a resource.

15. Eliciting the help of a classmate can be effective.

16. Engage moms and dads as partners. The cooperation of the child’s parents is essential to changing difficult behavior. The child is almost certainly exhibiting similar behavior at home. Mother and fathers themselves may be worried or frustrated.

17. Establish a “safe” place in the classroom where the child can collect himself.

18. Violent behavior is often linked to a psychiatric diagnosis (e.g., bipolar disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, ADHD, Tourette Syndrome, Asperger’s disorder, depression). Work with the moms and dads and school psychologist to identify the cause as well as triggers for the behavior, and to determine if a more thorough psychiatric evaluation is warranted.

19. Foster values of empathy, caring, respect, self-awareness, and self-restraint.

==> Parenting and Teaching Children and Teens with Oppositional Defiant Disorder

20. Give students a common language with which to express their feelings and communicate with peers and grown-ups.

21. Have educators introduce expectations at the beginning of the year and regularly incorporate opportunities for learning coping skills into the school day.

22. Help students distinguish between unacceptable behavior and acceptable differences in learning and socialization.

23. Help the child build communication and self-control skills.

24. Students usually have a pattern of behaviors that express their growing frustration (e.g., clenching their fists, jiggling their leg, or making sounds of exasperation). These clue the teacher as to when to intervene.

25. Identify the underlying impetus of the behavior. Determine why the child resorts to violence or aggression in the first place. Ultimately the behavior is accomplishing what the child wants—or feels he wants—and it is important to know why.

26. Implement a school-wide approach to build positive behavior skills for all children.

27. In some cases, the best approach may be to keep the child away from those situations that prove especially difficult.

28. In the beginning of the school year, school staff may need to intervene quite a bit, but the eventual objective is to enable the child to manage his reactions himself.

29. Know that the parents of the child in question may need to adjust some of their own behavior or approach to the problem and may feel they are being judged. So be sensitive to this possibility.

30. Lay out an action plan for students to help themselves and each other behave appropriately.

31. Maintain open communication with moms and dads and determine how they prefer to be contacted if their child is having difficulty (e.g., a phone call, note home, or e-mail).

32. Model the skills you want the students to learn.

==> Parenting and Teaching Children and Teens with Oppositional Defiant Disorder

33. Provide a universal language or set of steps to facilitate learning desired behaviors.

34. Provide students the natural opportunity to learn and practice alternative skills under a variety of daily circumstances.

35. Provide support staff, including playground aides, lunchroom monitors, and bus drivers, with advice on how to deal effectively with the child.

36. Put the aggressive child’s need for more intensive interventions within the positive context of learning something everyone else is learning.

37. Reach out to moms and dads. Invite them to let you know if they are concerned about behavior problems at home. Offer to be a resource.

38. Reinforce behavior values and desired skills throughout the building by using bulletin boards, wall charts, morning announcements, etc.

39. Remember that the cost of prevention strategies is far lower than the cost of remediating or containing far more serious problems down the road.

40. Show the child that you are an advocate for his success. Students with serious behavior problems may need extra encouragement to feel supported. Begin interactions with the child by acknowledging some strength. Go out of your way to catch him succeeding.

41. Stay in front of the rages. Everyone is better off if grown-ups can help the child stop the violent behavior before it starts. Not only does this minimize the negative impact on others, it changes the child’s expectation that “losing it” is his only option.

42. Teach the child to recognize signs that he is getting frustrated and the corresponding feelings and thoughts in order to implement coping strategies before losing control.

43. Try to spend some time with the child other than in the midst of a crisis.

44. Work with all of the grown-ups involved - and the child - to determine what approaches are most effective. If applicable, these strategies would be incorporated into the child’s IEP.

45. You may need to “ignore” certain non-risky behaviors (e.g., walking around in the middle of class) that, when interrupted, set the child off.

==> Parenting and Teaching Children and Teens with Oppositional Defiant Disorder

11 Tips for Managing Difficult Students

Anyone who has worked in the classroom for any period of time has experienced a difficult child that has challenged them.

The challenge could be a direct threat, a questioning of authority, even an attempt at turning the children against the teacher. These moments can be very discouraging, disempowering, and even humiliating if you don't have a plan for dealing with these challenging children and situations.

Here are 11 easy tips to help you deal effectively with these situations in a respectful and immediate manner so you can continue with your instruction:

1. Try very hard not to hold grudges. Your children are very forgiving and will often come back the next acting as if you'd never feuded. Take them up on that opportunity and leave yesterday's baggage behind.

2. Take a deep breath. Remember, it's not personal. That challenging student would be showing this behavior to any teacher in front of the classroom. You just happen to the be lucky recipient. A deep breath can help you subdue your ego just enough to deal with the situation in a less emotional manner.

3. Send the difficult child to another classroom. Too many educators use the office as their main form of discipline. This is a self-defeating tool. Children will learn that if they want to get out of your class, they can just act out and you'll oblige them by sending them out! Instead, form alliances with nearby educators. When you are having difficulty with a student, tell them to go to that teacher's class. I recommend they stay there for the duration of your class. The next day, act as if nothing happened. Move forward.

4. Repeat your directions (while maintaining eye contact). This will allow the difficult child another chance at complying with your request.

5. Maintain eye contact with the student presenting the challenge. Occasionally this requires you to move in order to meet this child's eyes.

6. Joke with your children. Laughter helps the brain grow and stimulates learning. Take the chance to share a laugh with your children whenever possible.

7. Implement a positive-reinforcement behavior management system and reinforce appropriate behavior often. Reward for good behavior, ignore (if possible) bad behavior.

8. Explain the consequences for a child's immediate behavior. Use "if...then" statements to explain what will happen. Follow through with your consequences.

9. Establish and post your classroom rules. Teach the children exactly what you expect and remind them of your expectations before problems arise.

10. Avoid arguing. Many of these challenging children are all too used to arguments. That is the style of communication they hear most often at home. Don't feed into the argument. State your request calmly. Ask if he or she understood your request. And state, "This is not a discussion."

11. Allow children a choice. "You can sit down, or you can sit out of recess."

===> Parenting and Teaching Children with Oppositional Defiant Disorder

Teaching Students with Conduct Disorder

Kids and teens with conduct disorder are highly visible, demonstrating a complicated group of behavioral and emotional problems. Serious, repetitive, and persistent misbehavior is the essential feature of this disorder.

These behaviors fall into 4 main groups: aggressive behavior toward people or animals, destruction of property, deceitfulness or theft, and serious violations of rules.

To receive a diagnosis of conduct disorder, a youngster or adolescent must have displayed 3 or more characteristic behaviors in the past 12 months. At least 1 of these behaviors must have been evident during the past 6 months.

Diagnosing conduct disorder can be a dilemma because kids are constantly changing. This makes it difficult to discern whether the problem is persistent enough to warrant a diagnosis. In some cases, what appears to be conduct disorder may be a problem adjusting to acute or chronic stress. Many kids with conduct disorder also have learning disabilities and about 1/3 are depressed. Many kids stop exhibiting behavior problems when they are treated for depression.

The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services estimates that between 6 and 16 percent of males and 2 to 9 percent of females under age 18 have conduct disorder that ranges in severity from mild to severe.

Other serious disorders of childhood and adolescence commonly associated with conduct disorder are attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (AD/HD) or oppositional defiant disorder (ODD). The majority of kids and teens with conduct disorder may have lifelong patterns of antisocial behavior and be at higher risk for a mood or anxiety disorder. But for many, the disorder may subside in later adulthood.

The social context in which a student lives (poverty or a high crime area, for example) may influence what we view as antisocial behavior. In these cases, a diagnosis of conduct disorder can be misapplied to individuals whose behaviors may be protective or exist within the cultural context.

A youngster with suspected conduct disorder needs to be referred for a mental health assessment. If the symptoms are mild, the student may be able to receive services and remain in the regular school environment. More seriously troubled kids, however, may need more specialized educational environments.

Symptoms or Behaviors—

• Bullying or threatening classmates and other children

• Destruction of property

• Frequent physical fights; use of a weapon

• History of frequent suspension

• Little empathy for others and a lack of appropriate feelings of guilt and remorse

• Low self-esteem masked by bravado

• Lying to peers or teachers

• Poor attendance record or chronic truancy

• Stealing from peers or the school

Educational Implications—

Children with conduct disorder like to engage in power struggles. They often react badly to direct demands or statements such as: “You need to...” or “You must...” They may consistently challenge class rules, refuse to do assignments, and argue or fight with other children. This behavior can cause significant impairment in both social and academic functioning. They also work best in environments with high staff/student ratios, 1-to-1 situations, or self-contained programs when there is plenty of structure and clearly defined guidelines. Their frequent absences and their refusal to do assignments often leads to academic failure.

Instructional Strategies and Classroom Accommodations—

• Avoid “infantile” materials to teach basic skills. Materials should be age-appropriate, positive, and relevant to children’ lives.

• Avoid escalating prompts such as shouting, touching, nagging, or cornering the student.

• Be aware that adults can unconsciously form and behaviorally express negative impressions of low-performing, uncooperative children. Try to monitor your impressions, keep them as neutral as possible, communicate a positive regard for the children, and give them the benefit of the doubt whenever possible.

• Consider the use of technology. Children with conduct disorder tend to work well on computers with active programs.

• Establish clear classroom rules. Rules should be few, fair, clear, displayed, taught, and consistently enforced. Be clear about what is nonnegotiable.

• Give the student options. Stay away from direct demands or statements such as: “You need to...” or “you must....”

• Have your children participate in the establishment of rules, routines, schedules, and expectations.

• Make sure curriculum is at an appropriate level. When work is too hard, children become frustrated. When it is too easy, they become bored. Both reactions lead to problems in the classroom.

• Maximize the performance of low-performing children through the use of individualized instruction, cues, prompting, the breaking down of academic tasks, debriefing, coaching, and providing positive incentives.

• Remember that kids with conduct disorder like to argue. Maintain calm, respect, and detachment. Avoid power struggles and don’t argue.

• Remember that praise is important but needs to be sincere.

• Structure activities so the student with conduct disorder is not always left out or the last one picked.

• Children with conduct disorder often do well in programs that allow them to work outside the school setting.

• Systematically teach social skills including anger management, conflict resolution strategies, and how to be assertive in an appropriate manner. For example, discuss strategies that the children may use to calm themselves when they feel their anger escalating. Do this when the children are calm.

==> Parenting and Teaching Children with Oppositional Defiant Disorder

Classroom Management Strategies for Difficult Students

Surveys of graduates of education schools and colleges indicate that the #1 area of concern of new educators is their feelings of inadequacy in managing classrooms.

Despite clinical experiences, student teaching, and other observations in classroom settings, this problem has persisted for decades. There is no magic elixir that will confer skill in this area of professional responsibility. We only wish there were.

Classroom management and management of child conduct are skills that educators acquire and hone over time. These skills almost never "jell" until after a minimum of few years of teaching experience. To be sure, effective teaching requires considerable skill in managing the myriad of tasks and situations that occur in the classroom each day. Skills such as effective classroom management are central to teaching and require "common sense," consistency, a sense of fairness, and courage.

These skills also require that educators understand in more than one way the psychological and developmental levels of their difficult students. The skills associated with effective classroom management are only acquired with practice, feedback, and a willingness to learn from mistakes. Sadly, this is often easier said than done. Certainly, a part of this problem is that there is no practical way for education students to "practice" their nascent skills outside of actually going into a classroom setting. The learning curve is steep, indeed.

As previously mentioned, personal experience and research indicate that many beginning educators have difficulty effectively managing their classrooms. While there is no one best solution for every problem or classroom setting, the following principles, drawn from a number of sources, might help. Classroom educators with many years of experience have contributed to an understanding of what works and what doesn't work in managing classrooms and the behavior of difficult students. The following information represents some of the things that good classroom educators do to maintain an atmosphere that enhances learning. It is written in straightforward, non-preachy language, and will not drive you to distraction with its length. I think most students appreciate that. With that in mind, I truly hope this information is useful to you.

4 Fundamental Factors—

1. Know what you want and what you don't want.

2. Show and tell your difficult students what you want.

3. When you get something else, act quickly and appropriately.

4. When you get what you want, acknowledge (not praise) it.

ROOM ARRANGEMENT—

While good room arrangement is not a guarantee of good behavior, poor planning in this area can create conditions that lead to problems.

• The teacher must be able to observe all children at all times and to monitor work and behavior. The teacher should also be able to see the door from his or her desk.

• Frequently used areas of the room and traffic lanes should be unobstructed and easily accessible.

• Difficult students should be able to see the teacher and presentation area without undue turning or movement.

• Commonly used classroom materials, e.g., books, attendance pads, absence permits, and student reference materials should be readily available.

• Some degree of decoration will help add to the attractiveness of the room.

SETTING EXPECTATIONS FOR BEHAVIOR—

• Do not develop classroom rules you are unwilling to enforce.

• Rules and procedures are the most common explicit expectations. A small number of general rules that emphasize appropriate behavior may be helpful. Rules should be posted in the classroom. Compliance with the rules should be monitored constantly

• School-Wide Regulations...particularly safety procedures...should be explained carefully.

• Educators should identify expectations for child behavior and communicate those expectations to difficult students periodically.

• Because desirable child behavior may vary depending on the activity, explicit expectations for the following procedures are helpful in creating a smoothly functioning classroom:

1. Beginning and ending the period, including attendance procedures and what difficult students may or may not do during these times.

2. How children are to answer questions - for example, no student answer will be recognized unless he raises his hand and is called upon to answer by the teacher.

3. Independent group work such as laboratory activities or smaller group projects.

4. Seatwork

5. Teacher-Led Instruction

6. Use of materials and equipment such as the pencil sharpener, storage areas, supplies, and special equipment.

Remember, good discipline is much more likely to occur if the classroom setting and activities are structured or arranged to enhance cooperative behavior.

MANAGING STUDENT ACADEMIC WORK—

- The focus is on academic tasks and learning as the central purpose of child effort, rather than on good behavior for its own sake.

- Difficult students must be held accountable for their work.

- Effective teacher-led instruction is free of: Ambiguous and vague terms; Unclear sequencing; Interruptions

MANAGING INAPPROPRIATE BEHAVIOR—

- Address instruction and assignments to challenge academic achievement while continuing to assure individual student success.

- Effective classroom managers practice skills that minimize misbehavior.

- Monitor difficult students carefully and frequently so that misbehavior is detected early before it involves many children or becomes a serious disruption.

- Most inappropriate behavior in classrooms that is not seriously disruptive and can be managed by relatively simple procedures that prevent escalation.

- Act to stop inappropriate behavior so as not to interrupt the instructional activity or to call excessive attention to the child by practicing the following un-obstructive strategies:

1. Redirecting the child to appropriate behavior by stating what the child should be doing; citing the applicable procedure or rule. Example: "Please, look at the overhead projector and read the first line with me, I need to see everyone's eyes looking here."

2. Moving close to the offending child, making eye contact and giving a nonverbal signal to stop the offensive behavior.

3. More serious, disruptive behaviors such as fighting, continuous interruption of lessons, possession of drugs and stealing require direct action according to school board rule.

4. Calling a child's name or giving a short verbal instruction to stop behavior.

Assertive Discipline has been used by many schools, and is an effective way to manage behavior.

PROMOTING APPROPRIATE USE OF CONSEQUENCES—

- Consistency in the application of consequences is the key factor in classroom management.

- Frequent use of punishment is associated with poor classroom management and generally should be avoided.

- In classrooms, the most prevalent positive consequences are intrinsic student satisfaction resulting from success, accomplishment, good grades, social approval and recognition.

- Milder punishments are often as effective as more intense forms and do not arouse as much negative emotion.

- Misbehavior is less likely to recur if a child makes a commitment to avoid the action and to engage in more desirable alternative behaviors.

- Children must be aware of the connection between tasks and grades.

- When used, negative consequences or punishment should be related logically to the misbehavior.

SOME ESOL PRINCIPLES (A FEW THINGS TO KNOW ABOUT L.E.P. STUDENTS)—

- Correct repeated patterns or mistakes.

- Don't assume they understand something just because it seems simple to you. Simplify, boil down.

- Even when they have lost their accent, they often misunderstand common words and phrases.

- Good E.S.O.L. strategies are good teaching strategies.

- It is easy to misunderstand body language and certain behaviors. For example, eye contact, spitting, chalk eating, etc.

- They are not stupid and they can hear what is being said.. They just don't necessarily understand the language or culture, yet.

- They come from a variety of backgrounds, even in the same country. For example schooled, unschooled, Americanized, etc.

GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE PRAISE—

Effective Praise:

1. Attributes student success to effort and ability, implying that similar successes can be expected in the future.

2. Encourages difficult students to appreciate their accomplishments for the effort they expend and their personal gratification.

3. Helps difficult students to better appreciate their thinking, problem-solving and performance.

4. Is delivered contingently upon student performance of desirable behaviors or genuine accomplishment.

5. Is expressed sincerely, showing spontaneity, variety and other non-verbal signs of credibility.

6. Is given for genuine effort, progress, or accomplishment, which is judged according to standards appropriate to individuals.

7. Provides information to difficult students about their competence or the value of their accomplishments.

8. Specifies the praiseworthy aspects of the child's accomplishments.

Ineffective Praise:

1. Attributes student success to ability alone or to external factors such as luck or easy task.

2. Encourages difficult students to succeed for external reasons -- to please the teacher, win a competition or reward, etc.

3. Is delivered randomly and indiscriminately without specific attention to genuine accomplishment.

4. Is expressed blandly without feeling or animation, and relying on stock, perfunctory phrases.

5. Is general or global, not specifying the success.

6. Is given based on comparisons with others and without regard to the effort expended or significance of the accomplishment of an individual.

7. Orients difficult students toward comparing themselves with others.

8. Provides no meaningful information to the children about their accomplishments.

==> Parenting and Teaching Children with Oppositional Defiant Disorder

Teaching Difficult Students with Aspergers

Having spent nearly 20 years working with adolescent students who had emotional and /or behavioral disorders, some of the most complex students I worked with were those who had Aspergers.

Aspergers is a neurobiological disorder which is part of the autism spectrum. Most kids and adolescents who are diagnosed with Aspergers are usually very verbal and demonstrate average to above-average IQs.

Aspergers is diagnosed through examining atypical patterns of behavior, activities and interests. Aspergers may affect behavior, senses, and vision and hearing systems. Often kids and adolescents with Aspergers fixate on a single subject or activity (e.g., a youngster may only want to learn about trains).

Students with Aspergers have extreme difficulty with breaks in routine and transitions. They also have very poor social interactions. Most kids and adolescents with Aspergers with demonstrate repetitive movements and sensitivity to light, sound smell and/or touch.

Until recently, it is believed Aspergers was under-diagnosed. This is because many professionals and adults learned to compensate for Aspergers and used their fixations to their advantage.

In a classroom setting, Aspergers may manifest in behaviors which include, but are not limited to:

• Average to excellent memorization skills - may excel in areas such as math or spelling

• Clumsy walk

• Conversations and activities only center around themselves

• Inability to usually socially appropriate tone and/or volume of speech

• Lack of common sense and/or “street smarts”

• Lack of empathy for others

• Lack of facial expressions

• May be teased, bullied or isolated by peers

• Often very verbal

• Poor eye contact

• Talking about only one subject/topic and missing the cues that others are bored

If you have a student in class who has Aspergers, here are some ideas for assisting them:

• Develop a structured classroom with routines - write down the daily routine for the student

• Give the student an outlet for their fixation - For example: if a student finishes and assignment you require for class, allow them to turn work on the topic of their choice for extra credit.

• If/When the student becomes overwhelmed with frustration and experiences a "meltdown", remain calm and use a normal tone of voice to help the student deal with the stress

• Teach appropriate social interactions. Show the student how their words and actions impact others

• Team with moms/dads and other professionals to develop strategies

• Work with other students to develop an environment of tolerance and acceptance for the student with Aspergers

Frustration is a concern for all adolescents, but is multiplied in students experiencing Aspergers. It may be helpful, to get permission to speak with any mental health practitioners who are involved with the youngster. These professionals can help you gain a better understanding of the disorder, and work with you to develop effective interventions for the student in you classroom. 

Work with them and families to learn the warning signs that a student is being overcome with frustration and about to experience a "melt down". In turn, you provide to the mental health professional beneficial insight into how the youngster acts in and academic setting, which can help the professional treat the youngster in a more holistic manner.

==> Parenting and Teaching Children with Oppositional Defiant Disorder

ODD Child Occupies All Of Mother's Time

Parent/Teacher Name = Mommy of a ODD/ADHD child...

DifficultStudents.com: Comments/Questions = How do I balance my time that my 3 year old needs with house cleaning and personal care (which I don't have much time for). I have to attend to him 24-7. My husband works long hours so it is just me take care of him. Please help!

Answer =

Many parents with young kids can testify to the fact that it is hard to get anything accomplished with a three-year-old at their feet. A toddler requires nearly constant supervision, instant results to his every need and desire, and undivided attention whenever his little heart pleases.

The average attention span for a three-year-old is about 8 minutes. Unfortunately, this doesn't give nearly enough time for the parent to even begin to start on a task before the toddler is once again whining at her feet.

Tips to Increase a Youngster's Attention Span—

The first step to getting a youngster to focus for longer periods is through practice. One of the best ways to do this is through reading books to the youngster. Many kids will find it difficult to sit quietly through a story and each time they do so, their ability to focus if honed and developed.

One of the most crucial steps to increased attention span is to turn off the television. Young kids who spend too much time in front of the TV are more prone to ADHD and ADD once they are school aged. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends no TV for kids younger than 2. In many households this is difficult if not an impossibility, especially when there are older kids who have the TV turned on. It may be more realistic to advise limiting the amount of time spent in front of the television to under 2 hours a day.

Preparing Fun Activities for Busy Times—

One of the key strategies to success when trying to occupy a youngster is preparation. Instead of grabbing a piece of paper and some crayons, perhaps one could have a craft station set aside for the youngster. Have an area specifically designated to arts and crafts, organized in easily identifiable baskets or trays. This will ensure a quick "out" when the phone is ringing and an instant solution is needed.

Prepare different bins filled with items that the youngster finds interesting. Perhaps one could hold different stacking toys or even simple plastic containers and lids. Another could be filled with magazine pictures and scissors. This way when the parent is unable to stop her current task, she can pull out a bin in mere seconds and finish what she was doing.

Spending Quality Time—

Obviously one of the greatest needs a youngster has is love and attention. Often, they misbehave simply in an attempt to gain their parents' focus. Therefore, the most successful tool a parent or caregiver has is to sit down each day and interact with the youngster.

Instead of giving them an activity and walking away, parents could color with them; using the opportunity to teach them about shapes and colors. Sometimes it is as simple as getting down on the floor and playing with their favorite car or doll collection. Usually if a youngster receives even just twenty minutes of an adult’s time, she is content to play on her own for a while.

Entertaining a Toddler—

Toddlers have an uncanny ability to require all a parent has to offer them and it can be overwhelming. However, following simple steps to increase their attention span, be prepared, and spending one-on-one time with them each day can help develop kid's growing sense of independence, leaving parents with a little more precious time on their hands.

How long can your youngster pay attention to one activity?

This usually depends on their developmental age. If you have unrealistic expectations of your youngster's attention span, it can often lead to temper tantrums and other upsetting behavior. Keep in mind that whether or not your youngster likes the actual activity, or is sick, tired, or hungry can affect his/her attention span. Here are some guidelines to help you understand the typical lengths of attending behaviors in young kids:

• Ages 8 months - 15 months—Any new activity or event will distract your youngster, but they can usually attend for one minute or a little longer to a single toy or activity.

• Ages 16 months - 19 months—Your youngster might be restless, but is able to sustain attention to one structured activity for 2-3 minutes. Your youngster might not be able to tolerate verbal or visual interference.

• Ages 20 month - 24 months—Your youngster is still easily distracted by sounds, but can stay attentive to an activity either with or without an adult for 3-6 minutes.

• Age 25 - 36 months—Your youngster can generally pay attention to a toy or other activity for 5-8 minutes. In addition, he/she can shift attention from an adult speaking to him/her and then back to what he/she was doing if he/she is prompted to focus her attention.

• Ages 3 - 4 years—Your youngster can usually attend to an activity for 8-10 minutes, and then alternate his/her total attention between the adult talking to him/her and the activity he/she is doing independently.

==> Parenting and Teaching Children with Oppositional Defiant Disorder